Diagnosis of influenza virus

All authors reviewed and approved the final draft of the manuscript. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Food and Drug Administration, U. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Viruses v.

Published online Apr Alexander Ploss, Academic Editor. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Feb 11; Accepted Mar This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.

Abstract Despite significant advancement in vaccine and virus research, influenza continues to be a major public health concern. Keywords: Influenza diagnostics, Immunoassay, Influenza viruses, hemaglutinin, neuraminidase, subtype, next-generation sequencing NGS.

Introduction Influenza, also known as the flu, is a respiratory illness caused by viruses belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. Viral Culture Recovery of influenza viruses in clinical samples by propagation in mammalian cells or embryonated eggs is the most traditional method for influenza diagnosis. Shell Viral Culture SVC SVC is another viral culture approach that has been in use since the early s for clinical diagnosis of influenza virus infections.

Serological Assays Serological assays most commonly used to detect influenza virus-specific antibody responses include hemagglutination inhibition assay HAI , microneutralization or virus neutralization assay VN , single radial hemolysis SRH , complement fixation assay, enzyme linked immunoabsorbant assay ELISA and Western blotting. Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay The HAI assay is the most commonly used method to determine the presence of influenza virus HA-specific antibodies in serum following natural infection and vaccination in humans and other animal models.

Virus Neutralization Assay The VN assay is another technique used to measure induction of virus-specific antibodies following natural infection or vaccination, and is routinely used for the detection of antibody titers of either seasonal or avian influenza A virus strains.

Single Radial Hemolysis SRH is a technique commonly used to determine the induction of antibodies following natural infection or vaccination. Complement Fixation This is an immunodiffusion-based approach used to measure antibody responses to influenza virus internal proteins NP and M, following vaccination or infection [ 22 ]. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification-Based Assay LAMP LAMP is a DNA loop-mediated isothermal nucleic acid amplification approach that has been evaluated for detection of several viruses including severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS corona virus, rhinovirus, adenovirus, new castle disease virus, monkey pox virus, human immunodeficiency virus, and influenza virus.

Microarray-Based Approaches Microarray-based approaches have proven to be useful tools for detection and subtyping of influenza viruses. Nucleic Acid Sequencing Approaches 8. Sanger Sequencing Sanger sequencing, also referred to as the dideoxy procedure, is a chain termination method of DNA sequencing. Next-Generation Sequencing NGS NGS is a rapidly expanding technology and the techniques may potentially generate enormous impacts on life science, medicine, and related fields.

Conclusions Antigenic drift resulting from accumulation of point mutations in the viral genome generates novel variants that escape immunity to previous influenza strains causing annual seasonal epidemics.

Acknowledgments The findings and conclusions in this paper have not been formally disseminated by the Food and Drug Administration and should not be construed to represent any Agency determination or policy. Author Contributions S.

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